WikiWorld

Нью-Ёрк — адзін з найболей населеных і эканамічна разьвітых штатаў ЗША. Саступіўшы пасьля 1960 году Каліфорніі 1-е месца паводле колькасьці жыхароў, Нью-Ёрк займае вядучыя пазыцыі ў вобласьці банкаўскай справы, гандлю каштоўнымі паперамі, тэлекамунікацыяў. Фінансавая дзейнасьць (у тым ліку страхаваньне), гандаль нерухомасьцю даюць штату каля 80 % валавога прыбытку. Да 1970-х, калі ён здаў пазыцыі Каліфорніі, Нью-Ёрк быў галоўным індустрыяльным штатам ЗША. З больш 7 млн эканамічнага актыўнага насельніцтва на прамысловасьць прыходзіцца каля 25 %, на сельскую гаспадарку — 2 %, на гандаль і фінансы амаль 30 %. Занятых у горназдабыўной прамысловасьці (1970) 8 тыс., у апрацоўнай — 1,8 млн чалавек. Найважнейшыя віды карысных выкапняў — камень, соль, пясок. Акрамя таго, здабыча цынку (55 тыс. т), паваранай солі (каля 5 млн т), будматэрыялаў, абразіваў, вытворчасьць тытанавых канцэнтратаў. Важныя галіны апрацоўнай прамысловасьці: швейная і паліграфічная (галоўным чынам у Нью-Ёрку), электратэхнічная і радыёэлектронная, оптыка-мэханічная, суднабудаўнічая, авіяракетная прамысловасьць, вытворчасьць прамысловага абсталяваньня. Разьвітыя таксама чорная (галоўным чынам у Бафала) і каляровая мэталюргія, хімічная, нафтаперапрацоўчая, харчовая, скурна-абутковая прамысловасьць, выплаўленьне алюмінія. Буйныя ГЭС — на Ніягаре і рацэ Сьвятога Лаўрына. Усталяваная магутнасьць электрастанцый (1972) 24 Гвт. Прадукцыя сельскай гаспадаркі (прыгараднага тыпу) мае пераважна мясцовае значэньне: яблыкі, вішня, гародніна, кукуруза. Жывёлагадоўля дае звыш 75 % таварнай прадукцыі сельскай гаспадаркі; буйнага рагатага быдла (1971) 1,8 млн галоваў, у тым ліку звыш 1 млн дойных кароваў і цёлак. У пасевах пераважаюць кармавыя. На Лонг-Айлэндзе выгадоўваюць галоўным чынам бульба і гародніна, а на ўзьбярэжжах азёр Эры і Антарыё — вінаград і пладовыя (2-е месца па зборы ў ЗША). У берагоў Лонг-Айлэнду разьвітае рыбалоўства. Высока разьвітая транспартная сетка. Важную ролю ў эканоміцы штата грае індустрыя турызму з цэнтрам у Нью-Ёрку.

Адна з найболей сур'ёзных праблем штата — забруджваньне навакольнага асяродзьдзя, барацьба зь ім адзначаная прыняцьцем дзейсных заканадаўчых актаў у 1960-я.

Вядучая роля ў жыцьці штата, ды і ўсёй краіны, традыцыйна замацавалася за горадам Нью-Ёркам. Штогадовы валавы прадукт толькі гэтага горада пераўзыходзіць ВНП большасьці краін сьвету. Нью-Ёрк — традыцыйны цэнтар тэкстыльнай прамысловасьці, паліграфіі, вытворчасьці прадуктаў сілкаваньня, буйны марскі порт.

Бафала — цэнтар цяжкай прамысловасьці (хоць шматлікія сталеліцейныя заводы зачыніліся ў 1980-х), буйны азёрны порт.

Рочэстэр — цэнтар вытворчасьці аптычных прыбораў.

Сайрэк'юз — цэнтар хімічнай, мэталюргічнай, электратэхнічнай і цэлюлозна-папяровай прамысловасьці, цяжкага машынабудаваньня.

Ютыка і Рым — цэнтры машынабудаваньня, Бінгемтон — бытавой электронікі, кампутараў.

Мяжуе на ўсходзе са штатамі Вэрмонт, Масачусэтс і Канэктыкут, на паўднёвым усходзе мае выхад да Атлантычнага акіяна, на поўдні мяжуе са штатамі Пэнсыльванія і Нью-Джэрзі, на захадзе мае выхад да азёр Эры і Антарыё і мяжуе з канадзкай правінцыяй Антарыё, на поўначы з правінцыяй Квэбэк.

Вялікая частка тэрыторыі штата занятая адгор'ямі Апалачаў, якія дасягаюць на паўночным усходзе, у гарах Адзірандак, вышыні 1628 м. На паўднёва-захадзе — бок Апалачскага плато вышынёй да 656 м (Алеганскія горы). На паўночным захадзе, у берагоў Антарыё, а таксама на Лонг-Айлэндзе — нізіны. Клімат умераны, вільготны. На паўднёвым усходзе мякчэйшы і вільготны клімат, у горах — кантынэнтальны. Сярэдне-месячныя тэмпэратуры ад 0-8 да 23 градусаў. Ападкаў 800—1000 мм у год. Каля 13 % плошчы займаюць рэкі і азёры. Галоўныя рэкі — Гудзон (звязаная з сыстэмай Вялікіх азёр), Махок, Свьвятога Лаўрына, Саскуэханна. Іглічныя і зьмяшаныя лясы.

Да часу зьяўленьня эўрапейцаў у гэтых месцах жылі плямёны іракескай лігі і алганкіны, якія падчас эўрапейскай калянізацыі Паўночнай Амэрыкі падвергнуліся значнаму вынішчэньню. Засваеньне рэгіёну пачалося з дасьледаваньня ракі Хадсан. У Нью-Ёркскай бухце ў 1524 пабываў Джавані Вэрацыяна. У 1609 Генры Хадсан, які служыў у галяндцаў, дайшоў па рацэ да раёна, дзе цяпер находзіцца горад Олбані. Тут у 1614-18 існавала першае селішча форт Насаў. У 1621 гэтая тэрыторыя была ўключаная ў склад галяндзкіх каляніяльных уладаньняў у Паўночнай Амэрыцы, якія атрымалі назоў Новыя Нідэрлянды. У 1626 быў заснаваны горад Новы Амстэрдам (будучы Нью-Ёрк), які стаў цэнтрам галяндзкіх калёніяў. Гэтая тэрыторыя была аб'ектам працяглай англа-галяндзкай барацьбы. У 1664 галяндзкі губэрнатар Пэтэр Стайвэсант пад ціскам брытанскага флота здаў калёнію ангельцам. З 1664 (акрамя 1673-74) ёю валодалі ангельцы (яны надалі сваёй новай калёніі назву Нью-Ёрк). У 1664 з калёніі была вылучаная тэрыторыя, цяпер вядомая як штат Нью-Джэрзі, праз год была ўсталяваная мяжа паміж Нью-Ёркам і Канэктыкутам, якая ў далейшым не зьмянялася. У 1688 Нью-Ёрк разам зь іншымі калёніямі ўвайшоў у склад дамініёна Новая Англія. Пасьля паўстаньня пад кіраўніцтвам Я. Лізьлера ўлада ў калёніі на працягу двух гадоў была ў руках мяцежнікаў (1689-91). У 1691 пасьля аднаўленьня ўлады ангельскай кароны было прынятае рашэньне аб стварэньні заканадаўчага збору. Нью-Ёрк быў цэнтрам падзей падчас войнаў з французамі і індзейцамі і шмат разоў, да разгрому французаў у 1761, падвяргаўся спусташальным рэйдам.

У пэрыяд Вайны за незалежнасьць будучы штат таксама займаў стратэгічнае месца ў плянах бакоў. У 1776-77 на яго тэрыторыі адбываўся шэраг буйных сутыкненьняў. У красавіку 1777 Нью-Ёрк ратыфікаваў Канстытуцыю ЗША і ў ліпені 1778 стаў 11-м па ліку штатам з часовай сталіцай у горадзе Кінгстан (у 1797 сталіца перанесеная ў Олбані). Да канца першай чвэрці XIX стагодзьдзя штат меў высокаразьвітую сельскую гаспадарку і мануфактурную прамысловасьць з цэнтрам у Нью-Ёрку. Хутка разьвівалася транспартная сетка, чаму спрыяла як наяўнасьць натуральных водных шляхоў, так і само месцазнаходжаньне штата. У 1825 завяршылася будаўніцтва канала Эры, у 1831 пабудаваная першая чыгунка, якая злучыла Олбані і Скенэктадзі, а яшчэ праз 25 гадоў увесь штат быў пакрыты сеткай чыгунак. У 1830-40-я ў грамадзтве адбываліся значныя перамены: разьвіваўся працэс дэмакратызацыі, актыўна дзейнічалі арганізацыі фэрмэраў, жанчын, абаліцыяністаў. Былі моцныя рэфарматарскія тэндэнцыі, якія спарадзілі пляяду бачных нью-ёркскіх палітычных дзеячаў, у тым ліку Марціна Ван Бюрэна, Ўільяма Генры Сьцюарда, Хораса Грылі.

Ужо да 1820 Нью-Ёрк займаў першае месца сярод штатаў па колькасьці насельніцтва, перад Грамадзянскай вайной ён стаў кіроўным прамысловым штатам краіны. У Грамадзянскай вайне ў ЗША 1861-65 удзельнічаў на баку Поўначы. Больш 500 тыс. жыхароў штата прынялі ўдзел у вайне, 50 тыс. чалавек загінулі. Пасьля вайны эканамічнае разьвіцьцё штата працягвалася ў ранейшым тэмпе; для другой паловы XIX стагодзьдзя характэрныя рост карпарацыяў і ўзьнікненьне гіганцкіх трэстаў, наплыў імігрантаў з Эўропы. Адбывалася рэзкае расслаеньне грамадзтва, пагоршыліся ўмовы працы, у палітычным жыцьці квітнела карупцыя. Панаваньню Тамані-хола атрымалася пакласьці канец толькі ў 1930-я высілкамі шматлікіх відных палітыкаў, у тым ліку мэра Нью-Ёрку Фьёрэла Генры Лагуардыя (1934-45).

Нью-Ёрк (па-ангельску: New York) — штат на паўночным усходзе ЗША, на Атлянтычным узьбярэжжы, каля мяжы з Канадай, найбуйнейшы ў групе Сярэдне-Атлянтычных штатаў. У межах штата знаходзіцца найбуйнейшы горад, эканамічны і палітычны цэнтар краіны — Нью-Ёрк. У склад штата ўваходзіць таксама буйны востраў Лонг-Айлэнд. Плошча штата 141 тыс. км², зь іх больш 18 тыс. км² занятыя ўнутранымі водамі. Насельніцтва 18,9 млн чалавек (трэцяе месца пасьля Каліфорніі і Тэхаса) (2000), у тым ліку гарадзкога каля 85 %, больш 60 % жывуць у Нью-Ёрку. Адміністрацыйны цэнтар — Олбані. Буйныя гарады і асноўныя прамысловыя цэнтры: Нью-Ёрк, Бафала, Рочэстэр, Сайрэк'юз. Іншыя буйныя гарады: Ніягара-Фолз, Ютыка, Скенэктадзі, Бінгемтон, Трой.

Nueva York ye un estáu de los Estaos Xuníos. Ye el terceru más pobláu de toa la nación, porque Nueva York ta situada dientru d'él; anque la capital del estáu ye Albany.

ولاية نيويورك
State of New York
علم الولاية شعار الولاية

كنية الولاية: الولاية الإمبراطورية (The Empire State)

اللغات الرسمية لايوجد لغة رسمية
العاصمة ألباني
أكبر مدينة نيويورك
الحاكم إليوت سبيتزر
المساحة
- الرتبة من حيث المساحة
- % المسطح المائي 141,205 كم²
(27)
13.3 %
السكان
- عدد السكان
- الكثافة
- الرتبة من حيث عدد السكان
18,976,457
155.18/كم²
3
الانضمام للاتحاد
- تاريخ الانضمام للاتحاد
- الرتبة من حيث الانضمام
26 يوليو 1788
(11)
الموقع الجغرافي
- خط الطول
- خط العرض

الامتداد الجغرافي
- الطول
- العرض
- أقصى ارتفاع
- أقصى انخفاض
- متوسط الارتفاع
530 كم
455 كم
1,629 متر
305 متر
0 متر
المنطقة الزمنية UTC -5/-4
إيزو 3166-2
الرمز البريدي US-NY
NY
الموقع الإلكتروني www.ny.gov
نيويورك إحدى ولايات الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية تقع في شمال شرق الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية على المحيط الأطلنطي عاصمتها ألباني . تتكون الولاية من 62 مقاطعة، وتبلغ المساحة الكلية للولاية 284122 كم². لنيويورك مكانة متميزة في الولايات المتحدة لأنها:

أكبر مركز مالي في العالم.
يوجد بها مقر الأمم المتحدة.
الميناء الأول في الولايات المتحدة.
هذه بذرة مقالة عن الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية تحتاج للنمو والتحسين، ساهم في إثرائها بالمشاركة في تحريرها.

ኒው ዮርክ በሰሜናዊ-ምስራቅ አሜሪካ የምትገኝ ክፍለ-ሀገር ናት። ከአስራ-ሦስቱ ትንታዊ ክፍለ-አገሮች አንዱም ናት።

[ለማስተካከል] ሕዝብ

New York (Engels: State of New York) is 'n deelstaat in die Middel-Atlantiese gebied van die Verenigde State van Amerika. New York is ten opsigte van sy bevolking die derde grootste deelstaat. Dit word in die noorde deur Kanada (Quebec) en Ontariomeer, in die ooste deur Vermont, Massachusetts en Connecticut, in die suide deur New Jersey en Pennsylvanië, en in die weste deur Kanada (Ontario) en Eriemeer begrens. Die hoofstad is Albany en die grootste stad is New York Stad. New York is die 11de staat wat tot die Unie toegelaat was.

New York se bynaam is The Empire State.

There have been at least six United States Navy ships named USS New York in honor of the state. The keel was laid for the USS New York (LPD 21) on September 10, 2004 and she will be the seventh US Navy ship to be named for the state. The New York's motto will be "Never Forget."

The USS New York is one of the San Antonio-class of amphibious transport dock ships (LPD stands for Landing Ship Transport, Dock). The ship will be used to transport and land Marines, their equipment and supplies, such as amphibious vehicles and helicopters. It is one of three similar ships being given names that are associated with September 11. The others are the LPD 24 USS Arlington and the LPD 25 USS Somerset.

Twenty-four tons of steel from the World Trade Center were recycled for construction of the ship. Approximately seven tons were used, reverently, to make the bow section of the ship's hull.

According to Naval records, several other ships have carried the name the USS New York. This new ship was given the name the USS New York when former New York governor George Pataki wrote to Secretary of the Navy Gordon England and requested that the Navy use the name to honor the victims of September 11 and to give it to a surface ship that would be used to fight the War on Terror. This is an exception to the current use of state names for submarines only.

The first ship to carry the name USS New York was an armed gondola built by Revolutionary War General Benedict Arnold in 1776. She was burned to avoid capture later in the Revolutionary War.

The second ship named USS New York was a 36-gun frigate built in New York and commissioned in 1800. She saw service in the Mediterranean in the war against the Barbary Pirates. She was burned by the British in 1814 while she was in the Washington Navy Yard.

The third USS New York was one of nine built to discourage a future war with Britain after the war of 1812. The threat abated, so she was never launched. Union forces later burned the 74-gun ship of the line to avoid her capture at the start of the American Civil War.

Beginning in 1863, a screw sloop was being built that would have carried the name USS New York, but it also never got launched, being sold in 1888.

The fifth USS New York (ACR 2) was a armored cruiser commissioned in 1893. She was used in the Spanish-American War and was the flagship of Rear Admiral William T. Sampson in the Battle of Santiago de Cuba (July 3, 1898), which destroyed the Spanish fleet. She was later renamed the USS Saratoga in 1911 and then renamed again as the USS Rochester in 1917.

The sixth was the battleship USS New York (BB 34), commissioned in 1914. She saw service in both World War I and World War II. She participated in atomic testing off the Bikini Islands surviving both an atmospheric explosion and an underwater detonation. She was used as a target ship in 1948 and was sunk off Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.

Finally, the Los Angeles-class nuclear attack submarine USS New York City (SSN 696) was in service from 1979 until 1997.[32][33]

New York hosted the 1980 Winter Olympics at Lake Placid, the Games known for the USA-USSR hockey game dubbed the "Miracle on Ice" in which a group of American college students and amateurs defeated the heavily-favored Soviet national ice hockey team 4-3 and went on to win the gold medal. Lake Placid also hosted the 1932 Winter Olympics. Along with St. Moritz, Switzerland and Innsbruck, Austria, it is one of the three places to have twice hosted the Winter Olympic Games.

New York is the home of one National Football League team, the Buffalo Bills, (based in the suburb of Orchard Park); Although the New York Giants and New York Jets represent the New York metropolitan area, they play in Giants Stadium, which is located in East Rutherford, New Jersey. New York also has two Major League Baseball teams, the New York Yankees (based in The Bronx), and the New York Mets (based in Queens). Three National Hockey League franchises (the New York Rangers in Manhattan, the New York Islanders in Long Island and the Buffalo Sabres) are based in New York. A National Basketball Association team, the New York Knicks is based in Manhattan.

The University of the State of New York oversees all public primary, middle-level, and secondary education in the state, while the New York City Department of Education manages the public school system in New York City.

At the college level, the statewide public university system is the State University of New York (SUNY). The City University of New York (CUNY) is the public university system of New York City. The SUNY system consists of 64 community colleges, technical colleges, undergraduate colleges and universities. The four university centers are University at Albany, Binghamton University, University at Buffalo and SUNY Stony Brook.

In addition there are many notable private universities, including the oldest Catholic institution in the northeast, Fordham University. New York is home to both Columbia University and Cornell University, making it the only state to contain more than one Ivy League school.

In the last few decades, New York State has generally supported candidates belonging to the Democratic Party in national elections. Democratic presidential candidate John Kerry won New York State by 18 percentage points in 2004, while Democrat Al Gore won the state by an even larger margin in 2000. New York City is a major Democratic stronghold with liberal politics. Many of the state's other urban areas, such as Albany, Buffalo, Rochester, and Syracuse are also Democratic. Rural upstate New York, however, is generally more conservative than the cities and tends to favor Republicans. Heavily populated Suburban areas such as Westchester County and Long Island have swung between the major parties over the past 25 years, but more often support Democrats.

New York City is the most important source of political fund-raising in the United States for both major parties. Four of the top five zip codes in the nation for political contributions are in Manhattan. The top zip code, 10021 on the Upper East Side, generated the most money for the 2000 presidential campaigns of both George W. Bush and Al Gore.[31]

Under its present constitution (adopted in 1938), New York is governed by the same three branches that govern all fifty states of the United States: the executive branch, consisting of the Governor of New York and the other independently elected constitutional officers; the legislative branch, consisting of the bicameral New York State Legislature; and the judicial branch, consisting of the state's highest court, the New York Court of Appeals, and lower courts. The state has two U.S. senators, 29 members in the United States House of Representatives, and 31 electoral votes in national presidential elections (a drop from its 41 votes during the 1970s).

New York's capital is Albany. The state's subordinate political units are its 62 counties. Other officially incorporated governmental units are towns, cities, and villages. New York has more than 4,200 local governments that take one of these forms. About 52% of all revenue raised by local governments in the state is raised solely by the government of New York City, which is the largest municipal government in the United States.[27]

The state has a strong imbalance of payments with the federal government. New York State receives 82 cents in services for every $1 it sends in taxes to the federal government in Washington.[28] The state ranks near the bottom, in 42nd place, in federal spending per tax dollar.[29]

Many of New York's public services are carried out by public benefit corporations, frequently called authorities or development corporations. Well known public benefit corporations in New York include the Metropolitan Transportation Authority, which oversees New York City's public transportation system, and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, a bi-state transportation infrastructure agency.

New York's legal system is explicitly based on English common Law. Capital punishment was declared unconstitutional in 2004.[30]

New York has one of the most extensive and one of the oldest transportation infrastructures in the country. Engineering difficulties because of the terrain of the state and the unique issues of the city brought on by urban crowding have had to be overcome since the state was young. Population expansion of the state generally followed the path of the early waterways, first the Hudson River and then the Erie Canal. Today, railroad lines and the New York State Thruway follow the same general route. The New York State Department of Transportation is often criticized for how they maintain the roads of the state in certain areas and for the fact that the tolls collected along the roadway have long passed their original purpose. Until 2006, tolls were collected on the Thruway within The City of Buffalo. They were dropped late in 2006 during the campaign for Governor (both candidates called for their removal).

The Bear Mountain Bridge crossing the Hudson River.In addition to New York City's famous mass transit subway, four suburban commuter railroad systems enter and leave the city, including the Long Island Rail Road, MTA Metro-North, the PATH system and five of NJTransit's rail services. Many of the other cities have urban and regional public transportation. Buffalo also has a Subway line, sometimes called a Lightrail System run by the NFTA, and Rochester had a subway system, although it is mostly destroyed. Only a small part exists under the old Erie Canal Aqueduct.

Portions of the transportation system are intermodal, allowing travelers to easily switch from one mode of transportation to another. One of the most notable examples is AirTrain JFK which allows rail passengers to travel directly to terminals at John F. Kennedy International Airport.

See also: Transportation in New York City

Politics and government

New York's gross state product in 2006 was $1.02 trillion, ranking third in size behind the larger states of California and Texas.[25] If New York were an independent nation, it would rank as the 16th largest economy in the world behind South Korea. Its 2005 per capita personal income was $40,072, an increase of 4.2% from 2004, placing it fifth in the nation behind Maryland, and eighth in the world behind Ireland. New York's agricultural outputs are dairy products, cattle and other livestock, vegetables, nursery stock, and apples. Its industrial outputs are printing and publishing, scientific instruments, electric equipment, machinery, chemical products, and tourism.

A recent review by the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities found 13 states, including several of the nation's largest, face budget shortfalls for FY2009. New York faces a deficit that could be as large as $4.3 billion.[26]

New York exports a wide variety of goods such as foodstuffs, commodities, minerals, manufactured goods, cut diamonds, and automobile parts. New York's five largest export markets in 2004 were Canada ($30.2 billion), United Kingdom ($3.3 billion), Japan ($2.6 billion), Israel ($2.4 billion), and Switzerland ($1.8 billion). New York's largest imports are oil, gold, aluminum, natural gas, electricity, rough diamonds, and lumber.

Canada is a very important economic partner for the state. 23% of the state's total worldwide exports went to Canada in 2004. Tourism from the north is also a large part of the economy. Canadians spent US$487 million in 2004 while visiting the state.

New York City is the leading center of banking, finance and communication in the United States and is the location of the New York Stock Exchange, the largest stock exchange in the world by dollar volume. Many of the world's largest corporations are based in the city.

The state also has a large manufacturing sector that includes printing and the production of garments, furs, railroad equipment and bus line vehicles. Many of these industries are concentrated in upstate regions. Albany and the Hudson Valley are major centers of nanotechnology and microchip manufacturing, while the Rochester area is important in photographic equipment and imaging.

New York is a major agricultural producer, ranking among the top five states for agricultural products such as dairy, apples, cherries, cabbage, potatoes, onions, maple syrup and many others. The state is the largest producer of cabbage in the U.S. The state has about a quarter of its land in farms and produced US$3.4 billion in agricultural products in 2001. The south shore of Lake Ontario provides the right mix of soils and microclimate for many apple, cherry, plum, pear and peach orchards. Apples are also grown in the Hudson Valley and near Lake Champlain. The south shore of Lake Erie and the southern Finger Lakes hillsides have many vineyards. New York is the nation's third-largest grape-producing state, behind California, and second largest wine producer by volume. In 2004, New York's wine and grape industry brought US$6 billion into the state economy. The state has 30,000 acres (120 km²) of vineyards, 212 wineries, and produced 200 million bottles of wine in 2004. A moderately sized saltwater commercial fishery is located along the Atlantic side of Long Island. The principal catches by value are clams, lobsters, squid, and flounder. These areas have been increasing as environmental protection has led to an increase in ocean wildlife.

Catholics comprise more than 40% of the population in New York.[22] Protestants are 30% of the population, Jews 8.4%, Muslims 3.5%, Buddhists 1%, and 13% claim no religious affiliation.

Cities and towns
For lists of cities, towns, and counties in New York, see List of cities in New York, List of towns in New York, List of villages in New York, List of counties in New York, List of census-designated places in New York and Administrative divisions of New York.
The largest city in the state and the most populous city in the United States is New York City, which comprises five counties, the Bronx, New York (Manhattan), Queens, Kings (Brooklyn), and Richmond (Staten Island). New York City is home to more than two-fifths of the state's population. The ten largest cities are:[23]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Cities in New YorkWikimedia Commons has media related to:
Maps of New YorkWikimedia Commons has media related to:
New YorkNew York City (8,274,527)
Buffalo (279,745)
Rochester (211,091)
Yonkers (196,425)
Syracuse (141,683)
Albany (93,523)
New Rochelle (72,967)
Mount Vernon (67,924)
Schenectady (61,280)
Utica (59,336)
The location of these cities within the state stays remarkably true to the major transportation and trade routes in the early nineteenth century, primarily the Erie Canal and railroads paralleling it. Today, Interstate 90 acts as a modern counterpart to commercial water routes.

Grouped by metropolitan statistical area[24], the twelve largest population centers in the state are:

New York City (18,815,988 in NY/NJ/PA, 12,381,586 in NY)
Buffalo/Niagara Falls (1,128,183)
Rochester (1,030,495)
Albany and the Capital District (853,358)
Poughkeepsie and the Hudson Valley (669,915)
Syracuse (645,293)
Utica/Rome (294,862)
Binghamton (246,426)
Kingston (181,860)
Glens Falls (128,886)
Ithaca (101,055)
Elmira (88,015)
The smallest city is Sherrill, New York, located just west of the Town of Vernon in Oneida County. Albany is the state capital, and the Town of Hempstead is the civil township with the largest population.

The southern tip of New York State—New York City, its suburbs including Long Island, the southern portion of the Hudson Valley, and most of northern New Jersey—can be considered to form the central core of a "megalopolis", a super-city stretching from the northern suburbs of Boston to the southern suburbs of Washington D.C. in Virginia and therefore occasionally called "BosWash".

The major ancestry groups in New York state are African American (15.8%), Italian (14.4%), Irish (12.9%), and German (11.1%).[21] According to a 2004 estimate, 20.4% of the population is foreign-born.

New York is home to the largest Dominican and Jamaican American population in the United States. The New York City neighborhood of Harlem has historically been a major cultural capital for sub saharan African-Americans and Bedford Stuyvesant is the largest in the United States. Queens, also in New York City, is home to the state's largest Asian-American population, and is also the most diverse county in the United States.

In the 2000 Census, Italian-Americans make up the largest ancestral group in Staten Island and Long Island, followed by Irish-Americans. Albany and southeast-central New York are heavily Irish-American and Italian-American. In Buffalo and western New York, German-Americans are the largest group; in the northern tip of the state, French-Canadians.

6.5% of New York's population were under 5 years of age, 24.7% under 18, and 12.9% were 65 or older. Females made up 51.8% of the population.

New York State has a higher number of Italian-Americans than any other U.S. state.

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, 13.61% of the population aged 5 and over speak Spanish at home, while 2.04% speak Chinese (including Cantonese and Mandarin), 1.65% Italian, and 1.23% Russian [4].

As of 2006, New York was the third largest state in population after California and Texas, with an estimated population of 19,306,183.[16] This represents an increase of 329,362, or 1.7%, since the year 2000; it includes a natural increase since the last census of 601,779 people (1,576,125 births minus 974,346 deaths) and a decrease due to net migration of 422,481 people out of the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 820,388 people, and migration within the country produced a net loss of about 800,213.

In spite of the open land in the state, New York's population is very urban, with 92% of residents living in an urban area.[17]

New York is a slow growing state with a large rate of migration to other states. In 2000 and 2005, more people moved from New York to Florida than from any one state to another.[18] New York state is a leading destination for international immigration, however. The center of population of New York is located in Orange County, in the town of Deerpark.[19] New York City and its eight suburban counties (excluding those in New Jersey, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania) have a combined population of 13,209,006 people, or 68.42% of the state's population.[20]

During the 17th century, Dutch trading posts established for the purchase of pelts from the Iroquois and other tribes expanded into the colony of New Netherlands. The first of these trading posts were Fort Nassau (1614, near present-day Albany); Fort Orange (1624, on the Hudson River just south of nowadays city of Albany (to replace the already mentioned Fort Nassau), developing into settlement Beverwijck (1647), and into nowadays Albany); Fort Amsterdam (1625, to develop into the town New Amsterdam which is present-day New York City); and Esopus, (1653, now Kingston). The British captured the colony during the Second Anglo-Dutch War and governed it as the Province of New York. Agitation for independence during the 1770s brought the American Revolution.

New York endorsed the Declaration of Independence on July 9, 1776.[10] The New York state constitution was framed by a convention which assembled at White Plains, New York on July 10, 1776, and after repeated adjournments and changes of location, terminated its labors at Kingston, New York on Sunday evening, April 20, 1777, when the new constitution was adopted with but one dissenting vote. It was not submitted to the people for ratification. It was drafted by John Jay. On 30 July 1777, George Clinton was inaugurated as the first Governor of New York at Kingston.

The Capture of Fort Ticonderoga provided the cannon and gunpowder necessary to force a British withdrawal from the Siege of Boston in 1775. The first major battle of the American Revolutionary War after independence was declared - and the largest battle of the entire war - was fought in New York at the Battle of Long Island (a.k.a Battle of Brooklyn) in 1776, and the first of two major British armies were captured by the Continental Army at the Battle of Saratoga in 1777, influencing France to ally with the revolutionaries. The withdrawal of General George Washington from Manhattan Island was followed by the British making New York City their military and political base of operations in North America for the duration of the conflict, and consequently the center of attention for Washington's intelligence network. The notorious British prison ships of Wallabout Bay saw more American combatants die of intentional neglect than were killed in combat in every battle of the war, combined. Four of the Iroquois nations fought on the side of the British. They were defeated in the Sullivan Expedition of 1779.[11] Suffering privations, many members moved to Canada. Most, absent or present, lost their land after the war. Some of the land purchases are the subject of modern-day claims by the individual tribes.[12] As per the Treaty of Paris. the last vestige of British authority in the former Thirteen Colonies - their troops in New York City - departed in 1783, which was long afterwards celebrated as Evacuation Day.[13]

The creation of the Erie Canal led to rapid industrialization in New York.New York state was one of the original thirteen colonies that became the United States. It was the 11th state to ratify the United States Constitution, on July 26, 1788.[14]

Transportation in western New York was difficult before canals were built in the early part of the nineteenth century. The Hudson and Mohawk Rivers could be navigated only as far as Central New York. While the St. Lawrence River could be navigated to Lake Ontario, the way westward to the other Great Lakes was blocked by Niagara Falls, and so the only route to western New York was over land. Governor DeWitt Clinton strongly advocated building a canal to connect the Hudson River with Lake Erie, and thus all the Great Lakes. Work commenced in 1817, and the Erie Canal was finished in 1825.[15] The canal opened up vast areas of New York to commerce and settlement, and enabled port cities such as Buffalo to grow and prosper.

The Statue of Liberty was dedicated in New York Harbor on October 28, 1886. Ellis Island, mostly located within New Jersey, opened as the primary immigration depot in the U.S. in 1892.

See also: New York State Constitutions

State parks
See also: List of New York state parks and New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation

Long Pond in the Saint Regis Canoe Area of the Adirondack Park.New York has many state parks and two major forest preserves. Adirondack Park, roughly the size of the state of Vermont and the largest state park in the United States, was established in 1892 and given state constitutional protection in 1894. The thinking that led to the creation of the Park first appeared in George Perkins Marsh's Man and Nature, published in 1864. Marsh argued that deforestation could lead to desertification; referring to the clearing of once-lush lands surrounding the Mediterranean, he asserted "the operation of causes set in action by man has brought the face of the earth to a desolation almost as complete as that of the moon."

The Catskill Park was protected in legislation passed in 1885,[9] which declared that its land was to be conserved and never put up for sale or lease. Consisting of 700,000 acres (2,800 km²) of land,[9] the park is a habitat for bobcats, minks and fishers. There are some 400 black bears living in the region. The state operates numerous campgrounds and there are over 300 miles (480 km) of multi-use trails in the Park.

The Montauk Point State Park boasts the famous Montauk Lighthouse, commissioned by President George Washington, which is a major tourist attraction and is located in the township of East Hampton, Suffolk County. Hither Hills park offers camping and is a popular destination with surfcasting sport fishermen.

Climate
See also: List of New York hurricanes
New York generally has a humid continental climate, though a plausible argument can be made that under the Köppen climate classification, New York City has a humid subtropical climate.[5] Weather in New York is heavily influenced by two continental air masses: a warm, humid one from the southwest and a cold, dry one from the northwest. A cool, humid airflow from the North Atlantic also has an effect on weather in the state, albeit to a lesser extent than the continental ones.[5] Many continental frontal boundaries move across New York, and storm systems moving north along the coast often affect the southern areas of the state.[5]

The winters are long and cold in the Plateau Divisions of the state. In the majority of winter seasons, a temperature of −13 °F (−25 °C) or lower can be expected in the northern highlands (Northern Plateau) and 5 °F (−15 °C) or colder in the southwestern and east-central highlands (Southern Plateau). The Adirondack region records from 35 to 45 days with below zero temperatures in normal to severe winters.[citation needed] Much of Upstate New York, particularly Western and Central New York, are typically affected by lake-effect snows. This usually results in high yearly snowfall totals in these regions. Winters are also long and cold in both Western and Central New York, though not as cold as the Adirondack region. The New York City metro area in comparison to the rest of the state is milder in the winter. Thanks in part to geography (its proximity to the Atlantic and being shielded to the north and west by hillier terrain), the New York metro area usually sees far less snow than the rest of the state. Lake-effect snow rarely affects the New York metro area, except for its extreme northwestern suburbs. Winters also tend to be noticeably shorter here than the rest of the state.[citation needed]

The summer climate is cool in the Adirondacks, Catskills, and higher elevations of the Southern Plateau. The New York City area and lower portions of the Hudson Valley have rather warm summers by comparison, with some periods of high, uncomfortable humidity. The remainder of New York State enjoys pleasantly warm summers, marred by only occasional, brief intervals of sultry conditions. Summer daytime temperatures usually range from the upper 70s to mid 80s °F (25 to 30 °C) over much of the State, producing an atmospheric environment favorable to many athletic, recreational, and other outdoor activities.

New York ranks 46th among the 50 states in the amount of greenhouse gases generated per person. This efficiency is primarily due to the state's relatively higher rate of mass transit use.[6]

New York covers 54,556 square miles (141,299 km²) and ranks as 27th largest state by size.[4] The Great Appalachian Valley dominates eastern New York, while Lake Champlain is the chief northern feature of the valley, which also includes the Hudson River flowing southward to the Atlantic Ocean. The rugged Adirondack Mountains, with vast tracts of wilderness, lie west of the valley. Most of the southern part of the state is on the Allegheny plateau, which rises from the southeast to the Catskill Mountains. The western section of the state is drained by the Allegheny River and rivers of the Susquehanna and Delaware systems. The Delaware River Basin Compact, signed in 1961 by New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and the federal government, regulates the utilization of water of the Delaware system. The highest elevation in New York is Mount Marcy in the Adirondacks.[3]

New York's borders touch (clockwise from the west) two Great Lakes (Erie and Ontario, which are connected by the Niagara River); the provinces of Ontario and Quebec in Canada; Lake Champlain; three New England states (Vermont, Massachusetts, and Connecticut); the Atlantic Ocean, and two Mid-Atlantic states (New Jersey and Pennsylvania). In addition, Rhode Island shares a water border with New York.

New York metropolitan area (Downstate)

New York City exurbs which are rural in character but arguably still within the New York City sphere of influence (possibly Downstate)

Included in the standard definition of Upstate New York

North Country and AdirondacksContrasting with New York City's urban atmosphere, the vast majority of the state is dominated by farms, forests, rivers, mountains, and lakes. New York's Adirondack Park is the largest state park in the United States. It is larger than the Yellowstone, Yosemite, Grand Canyon, Glacier and Olympic National Parks combined. New York established the first state park in the United States at Niagara Falls in 1885. Niagara Falls, on the Niagara River as it flows from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, is a popular attraction. The Hudson River begins with Lake Tear of the Clouds and flows south through the eastern part of the state without draining Lakes George or Champlain. Lake George empties at its north end into Lake Champlain, whose northern end extends into Canada, where it drains into the Richelieu and then the St. Lawrence Rivers. Four of New York City's five boroughs are on the three islands at the mouth of the Hudson River: Manhattan Island, Staten Island, and Brooklyn and Queens on Long Island.

"Upstate" and "Downstate" are common terms used to distinguish New York State counties north of suburban Westchester and Rockland counties, on the one hand, from the New York City metropolitan area on th other. Upstate New York typically includes the Catskill and Adirondack Mountains, the Shawangunk Ridge, the Finger Lakes and the Great Lakes in the west; and Lake Champlain, Lake George, and Oneida Lake in the northeast; and rivers such as the Delaware, Genesee, Mohawk, and Susquehanna. (A popular joke goes, "Where does Upstate begin?" "At the sign that says, 'Welcome to Yonkers'!") Central New York is the region centered around Syracuse and Utica, regions west of Syracuse are Western New York (i.e. Rochester and Buffalo), Binghamton, Elmira and west along the Pennsylvania line is the "Southern Tier," and "The North Country" is the region between the Adirondacks and the Canadian border, from the Watertown area to Plattsburgh. Residents of neighboring states and provinces may use the term "New York State" to refer to Upstate New York, to distinguish the region from New York City.

New York (pronounced /nuːˈjɔɹk/) is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States, and is the country's third most populous state. The state is bordered by New Jersey, and Pennsylvania to the south, Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east. The state has a water border with Rhode Island off the east coast of Long Island, as well as an international border with the Canadian provinces of Quebec and Ontario to the northwest. New York is often referred to as New York State to distinguish it from New York City.

New York City, which is the largest city in the United States, is known for its history as a gateway for immigration to the United States and its status as a financial, cultural, transportation, and manufacturing center. It was named after the 17th century Duke of York, James Stuart, future James II and VII of England and Scotland.

New York was inhabited by the Algonquin, Iroquois, and Lenape Native American groups at the time Dutch and French nationals moved into the region in the early 17th century. First claimed by Henry Hudson in 1609, the region came to have Dutch forts in Fort Orange, near the site of the present-day capital of Albany in 1614 and was colonized by the Dutch in 1624, at both Albany and Manhattan; it later fell to British annexation in 1664. About one third of all of the battles of the Revolutionary War took place in New York. New York became an independent state on July 9, 1776 and enacted its constitution in 1777. The state ratified the United States Constitution on July 26, 1788 to become the 11th state. According to the US Department of Commerce, it is also the state of choice for foreign visitors, leading both Florida and California in tourism.

The scientific subjects of Wright's paintings from this time were meant to appeal to the wealthy scientific circles in which he moved. While never a member himself, he had strong connections with the Lunar Society, a group of prominent industrialists, scientists and intellectuals who met regularly in Birmingham between 1765 and 1813: he was friends with members John Whitehurst and Erasmus Darwin, as well as Josiah Wedgwood, who later commissioned paintings from him.[24] The inclusion of the moon in the painting was a nod to their monthly meetings, which were held when the moon was full. Like The Orrery, Wright apparently painted Air Pump without a commission, and the picture was purchased by Dr Benjamin Bates, who already owned Wright's Gladiator. An Aylesbury physician, patron of the arts and hedonist, Bates was a diehard member of the Hellfire Club who, despite his excesses, lived to be over 90. Wright's account book shows a number of prices for the painting: Pd£200 is shown in one place and £210 in another, but Wright had written to Bates asking for £130, stating that the low price "might much injure me in the future sale of my pictures, and when I send you a receipt for the money I shall acknowledge a greater sum."[25] Whether Bates ever paid the full amount is not recorded; Wright only notes in his account book that he received £30 in part payment.[26] Wright exhibited the painting at the Society of Artists exhibition in 1763 and it was re-exhibited before Christian VII of Denmark in September the same year. Viewers remarked that it was "clever and vigorous", while Gustave Flaubert, who saw it on a visit to England, remarked on its "naiveté et profondeur".[17] It was popular enough that a mezzotint was engraved from it by Valentine Green and published on 24 June 1769.[26] 20th century art historian Ellis Waterhouse called it "one of the wholly original masterpieces of British art".[17]

From Bates, the picture passed to Walter Tyrell; another member of the Tyrell family, Edward, presented it to the National Gallery, London in 1863.[27] The painting was transferred to the Tate Gallery in 1929 (although it was actually on loan to Derby Museum and Art Gallery between 1912 and 1947). It was lent out for exhibitions to the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. in 1976 and to the National Museum of Fine Arts in Stockholm between 1979 and 1980. It was reclaimed by London's National Gallery in 1986.[17]

The striking scene has been used as the cover illustration for many books on topics both artistic and scientific. It has even spawned pastiches: the book cover of The Science of Discworld, by Terry Pratchett, Ian Stewart and Jack Cohen, is a tribute to the painting by artist Paul Kidby, who substitutes the book's protagonists for Wright's figures. Shelagh Stephenson's play An Experiment with an Air Pump, inspired by the painting, was the joint winner of the 1997 Margaret Ramsay Award and had its premiere at the Royal Exchange Theatre, Manchester in 1998

The powerful central light source creates a chiaroscuro effect. The light illuminating the scene has been described as "so brilliant it could only be the light of revelation".[19] The single source of light is obscured behind the bowl on the table; some hint of a lamp glass can be seen around the side of the bowl, but David Hockney has suggested that the bowl itself may contain sulphur, giving a powerful single light source that a candle or oil lamp would not.[20] In the earlier study a candle holder is visible, and the flame is reflected in the bowl. Hockney believes that many of the Old Masters used optical equipment to assist in their painting, and suggests that Wright may have used lenses to transfer the image to paper rather than painting directly from the scene, as he believes the pattern of shadows thrown by the lighting could have been too complicated for Wright to have captured so accurately without assistance.[20]

Wright's Air Pump was unusual, in that it depicted archetypes rather than specific people, though various models for the figures have been suggested. The young lovers may have been based on Thomas Coltman and Mary Barlow, friends of Wright's, whom he later painted in Mr and Mrs Thomas Coltman after their marriage in 1769; Erasmus Darwin has been suggested as the man timing the experiment on the left of the table, and John Warltire, whom Darwin had invited to help with some air pump experiments in real life, as the natural philosopher;[21] but Wright never identified any of the subjects or suggested they were based on real people.[6] In The Orrery, all the subjects have been identified apart from the philosopher, who has physical similarities to Isaac Newton but differs enough to make positive identification impossible. Nicholson detects the strong influence of Frye throughout the picture. Particularly striking is the similarity between Frye's mezzotint Portrait of a Young Man of 1760–1761 and the figure of the boy with his head cocked staring intently at the bird. In 1977, Michael Wynne published one of Frye's chalk drawings from around 1760, An old man leaning on a staff, which is so similar to the observer in the right foreground in Wright's picture to make it impossible that Wright had not seen it. There are other hints of Frye's style in the painting: even the figure of the natural philosopher has touches of Frye's Figure with Candle. Though Henry Fuseli would later also develop on the style of Frye's work there is no evidence of him having painted anything similar until the early 1780s. So, although he had already been in England at the time the Air Pump was produced, it is unlikely that he was an influence on Wright.[22]

Wright's scientific paintings adopted elements from the tradition of history painting but lacked the heroic central action typical of that genre. While ground-breaking, they are regarded as peculiar to Wright, whose unique style has been explained in many ways. Wright's provincial status and ties to the Lunar Society have been highlighted, as well as his close association with and sympathy for the advances made in the burgeoning Industrial Revolution. Other critics have emphasized a desire to capture a snapshot of the society of the day, in the tradition of William Hogarth but with a more neutral stance that lacks the biting satire of Hogarth's work.[23]

An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump followed in 1768, the emotionally charged experiment contrasting with the orderly scene from The Orrery. The painting, which measures 72 by 94½ inches (183 by 244 cm), shows a white cockatoo fluttering in panic as the air is slowly withdrawn from the vessel by the pump. The witnesses display various emotions: one of the girls worriedly watches the fate of the bird, while the other is too upset to observe and is comforted by her father; two gentlemen (one of them dispassionately timing the experiment) and a boy look on with interest, while the young lovers to the left of the painting are absorbed only in each other.[12] The scientist himself looks directly out of the picture, as if challenging the viewer to judge whether the pumping should continue, killing the bird, or whether the air should be replaced and the cockatoo saved.[13] Aside from that of the children, little sympathy is directed toward the bird; David Solkin suggests the subjects of the painting show the dispassionate detachment of the evolving scientific society. Individuals are concerned for each other: the father for his children, the young man for the girl, but the distress of the cockatoo elicits only careful study.[14]

An earlier study showed the demonstrator in a more reassuring pose. The bird here was a common songbird.To one side of the boy at the rear, the cockatoo's empty cage can be seen on the wall, and to further heighten the drama it is unclear whether the boy is lowering the cage on the pulley to allow the bird to be replaced after the experiment or hoisting the cage back up certain of its former occupant's death. It has also been suggested that he may be drawing the curtains to block out the light from the full moon. Jenny Uglow believes that the boy echoes the figure in the last print of William Hogarth's The Four Stages of Cruelty by pointing out the arrogance and potential cruelty of experimentation,[11] while David Fraser also sees the compositional similarities with the audience grouped round a central demonstration.[15] The neutral stance of the central character and the uncertain intentions of the boy with the cage were both later ideas: an early study, discovered on the back of a self-portrait, omits the boy and shows the natural philosopher reassuring the girls. In this sketch it is obvious that the bird will survive, and thus the composition lacks the power of the final version.[16]

The cockatoo would have been rare at the time, as the bird did not become well-known until after it was shown in the illustrations of the voyages of Captain Cook in the 1770s. Prior to Cook's voyage, the birds had been imported in small numbers to decorate the houses of wealthy industrialists. Wright had painted a cockatoo in 1762 at the home of William Chase, featuring it both in his portrait of Chase and his wife (Mr & Mrs William Chase) and as a separate study, The Parrot.[17] In selecting such a rare bird for this scientific sacrifice, Wright not only chose a more dramatic subject than the "lungs-glass", but was perhaps making a statement about the values of society in the Age of Enlightenment.[6]

On the table are various other pieces of equipment that the natural philosopher would have used during his demonstration: a thermometer, candle snuffer and cork, and close to the man seated to the right is a pair of Magdeburg hemispheres, which would have been used with the air pump to demonstrate the difference in pressure exerted by the air and a vacuum: when the air was pumped out from between the two hemispheres they were impossible to pull apart. The air pump itself is rendered in exquisite detail, a faithful record of the designs in use at the time.[18] What appears to be a human skull in the large liquid-filled glass bowl would not have been a normal piece of equipment; William Schupbach suggests that it and the candle, which is presumably lighting the bowl from behind, form a vanitas—the two symbols of mortality reflecting the cockatoo's struggle for life.[17]

During his apprenticeship and early career Wright concentrated on portraiture. By 1762, he was an accomplished portrait artist, and his 1764 group portrait James Shuttleworth, his Wife and Daughter is acknowledged as his first true masterpiece. Benedict Nicholson suggests that Wright was influenced by the work of Thomas Frye; in particular by the 18 bust-length mezzotints which Frye completed just before his death in 1762. It was perhaps Frye's candlelight images that tempted Wright to experiment with subject pieces. Wright's first attempt, A Girl reading a Letter by candlelight with a Young Man looking over her shoulder from 1762 or 1763, is a trial in the genre, and is fetching though uncomplicated.[7] Wright's An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump forms part of a series of candlelit nocturnes that he produced between 1765 and 1768.

The first of his candlelit masterpieces, Three Persons Viewing the Gladiator by Candlelight, was painted in 1765, and showed three men studying a model of the "Borghese Gladiator". The Gladiator was greatly admired; but his next painting, A Philosopher giving that Lecture on the Orrery, in which a Lamp is put in place of the Sun (normally known by the shortened form A Philosopher Giving a Lecture on the Orrery or just The Orrery), caused a greater stir, as it replaced the Classical subject at the centre of the scene with one of a scientific nature. Wright's depiction of the awe produced by scientific "miracles" marked a break with previous traditions in which the artistic depiction of such wonder was reserved for religious events,[8] since to Wright the marvels of the technological age were as awe-inspiring as the subjects of the great religious paintings.[9] An anonymous review from the time called Wright "a very great and uncommon genius in a peculiar way".[10] The Orrery was painted without a commission, probably in the expectation that it would be bought by Washington Shirley, 5th Earl Ferrers, an amateur astronomer who had an orrery of his own, and with whom Wright's friend Peter Perez Burdett was staying while in Derbyshire. Figures thought to be Burdett and Ferrers feature in the painting, Burdett taking notes and Ferrers seated with his son next to the orrery.[6] Ferrers purchased the painting for £210, but the 6th Earl auctioned it off, and it is now held by Derby Museum and Art Gallery.[11]

In 1659, Robert Boyle commissioned the construction of an air pump, then described as a "pneumatic engine", which is known today as a vacuum pump. The air pump was invented by Otto von Guericke in 1650, though its cost deterred most contemporary scientists from constructing the apparatus. Boyle, the son of the Earl of Cork, had no such concerns—after its construction, he donated the initial 1659 model to the Royal Society and had a further two redesigned machines built for his personal use. Aside from Boyle's three pumps, there were probably no more than four others in existence during the 1660s: Christian Huygens had one in The Hague, Henry Power may have had one at Halifax, and there may have been pumps at Christ's College, Cambridge and the Montmor Academy in Paris.[1] Boyle's pump, which was largely designed to Boyle's specifications and constructed by Robert Hooke, was complicated, temperamental, and problematic to operate. Many demonstrations could only be performed with Hooke on hand, and Boyle frequently left critical public displays solely to Hooke—whose dramatic flair matched his technical skill.[2]

Despite the operational and maintenance obstacles, construction of the pump enabled Boyle to conduct a great many experiments on the properties of air, which he later detailed in his New Experiments Physico-Mechanicall, Touching the Spring of the Air, and its Effects (Made, for the Most Part, in a New Pneumatical Engine). In the book, he described in great detail 43 experiments he conducted, on occasion assisted by Hooke, on the effect of air on various phenomena. Boyle tested the effects of "rarified" air on combustion, magnetism, sound, and barometers, and examined the effects of increased air pressure on various substances. He listed two experiments on living creatures: "Experiment 40," which tested the ability of insects to fly under reduced air pressure, and the dramatic "Experiment 41," which demonstrated the reliance of living creatures on air for their survival. In this attempt to discover something "about the account upon which Respiration is so necessary to the Animals, that Nature hath furnish'd with Lungs", Boyle conducted numerous trials during which he placed a large variety of different creatures, including birds, mice, eels, snails and flies, in the vessel of the pump and studied their reactions as the air was removed.[3] Here, he describes an injured lark:

…the Bird for a while appear'd lively enough; but upon a greater Exsuction of the Air, she began manifestly to droop and appear sick, and very soon after was taken with as violent and irregular Convulsions, as are wont to be observ'd in Poultry, when their heads are wrung off: For the Bird threw her self over and over two or three times, and dyed with her Breast upward, her Head downwards, and her Neck awry.[4]

By the time Wright painted his picture in 1768, air pumps were a relatively commonplace scientific instrument, and itinerant "lecturers in natural philosophy"—usually more showmen than scientists—often performed the "animal in the air pump experiment" as the centrepiece of their public demonstration.[5] James Ferguson, the Scottish astronomer and probable acquaintance of Joseph Wright—both were friends of John Whitehurst—noted that a "lungs-glass" with a small air-filled bladder inside was often used in place of the animal, as using a living creature was "too shocking to every spectator who has the least degree of humanity".[6]

An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump is a 1768 oil-on-canvas painting by Joseph Wright of Derby, part of a series of candlelit scenes that Wright painted during the 1760s. The Air Pump departed from previous painting conventions by depicting a scientific subject in the reverential manner formerly reserved for scenes of historical or religious significance. Wright was intimately involved in depicting the Industrial Revolution and the scientific advances of the Enlightenment, but while his paintings were recognized as something out of the ordinary by his contemporaries, his provincial status and choice of subjects meant the style was never widely imitated. The picture has been owned by the National Gallery, London since 1863 and is still regarded as a masterpiece of British art.

The painting depicts a natural philosopher, a forerunner of the modern scientist, recreating one of Robert Boyle's air pump experiments, in which a bird is deprived of oxygen, before a varied group of onlookers. The group exhibits a variety of reactions, but for most of the audience scientific curiosity overcomes concern for the bird. The central figure looks out of the picture as if inviting the viewer's participation in the outcome.

An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump is a 1768 oil-on-canvas painting by Joseph Wright of Derby, part of a series of candlelit scenes that Wright painted during the 1760s. The Air Pump departed from previous painting conventions by depicting a scientific subject in the reverential manner formerly reserved for scenes of historical or religious significance. Wright was intimately involved in depicting the Industrial Revolution and the scientific advances of the Enlightenment, but while his paintings were recognized as something out of the ordinary by his contemporaries, his provincial status and choice of subjects meant the style was never widely imitated. The picture has been owned by the National Gallery, London since 1863 and is still regarded as a masterpiece of British art.

The painting depicts a natural philosopher, a forerunner of the modern scientist, recreating one of Robert Boyle's air pump experiments, in which a bird is deprived of oxygen, before a varied group of onlookers. The group exhibits a variety of reactions, but for most of the audience scientific curiosity overcomes concern for the bird. The central figure looks out of the picture as if inviting the viewer's participation in the outcome.

Art is the expression of creativity or imagination. The word art comes from the Latin word ars, which, loosely translated, means "arrangement". Art is commonly understood as the act of making works (or artworks) which use the human creative impulse and which have meaning beyond simple description. While art is often distinguished from crafts and recreational hobby activities, this boundary can at times be hard to define. The term creative arts denotes a collection of disciplines whose principal purpose is the output of material for the viewer or audience to interpret. As such, art may be taken to include forms ranging from literary forms (prose writing and poetry); performance-based forms (dance, acting, drama, and music); visual and "plastic arts" (painting ,sculpture, photography, illustration); to forms that also have a functional role, such as architecture and fashion design. Art may also be understood as relating to creativity, æsthetics and the generation of emotion.